This article offers a fascinating glimpse into the decrepit state of the streetcar system in Seoul at the beginning of August 1945, a mere two weeks or so before the end of World War II and the liberation of Korea from Imperial Japanese colonial rule.

Three years of war apparently took a terrible toll on the city’s streetcar infrastructure, with shortages of everything from labor to materials, and repair backlogs increasing. Even in the best of times, the streetcar system was already struggling with crowding, as shown in these newspaper photos from November 28, 1939:

Fewer operational streetcars meant even more overcrowding, which was exacerbated by passengers who brought oversized luggage on board, often stuffed with scarce food supplies brought in from the countryside. Fewer staff also meant overworked staff who were exhausted and more prone to mistakes, which led to more accidents. Similar scenes were likely playing out elsewhere in Imperial Japan in both the wartime and immediate postwar periods.

The colonial reporter interviewed two people for this piece: one was President Hozumi of Seoul Electric Railway, and the other was Chief Conductor Maehara whom the reporter accompanied on a field trip to at least three of the train stations along a short stretch of what is now Line 2 of Seoul Metro: Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), and Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). Maehara and the reporter witnessed the serious overcrowding and dysfunctional train operations first hand, such as train clumping and ‘tandem trains’ (a larger car pulling a smaller one). The interviewees were surprisingly frank and open about the ongoing problems, acknowledging room for improvement. As a propaganda news feature, colonial authorities may have published these interviews to address mounting public anger over worsening train services.

Maehara directed special criticism at rogue train conductors who were responsible for the phenomenon of trains pretending to be broken (‘moving broken cars’), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers (‘jump trains’), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops (‘slipping trains’), and trains running without clear destinations (‘black trains’), which he attributed to lack of adequate crew education. Perhaps some of these ‘black trains’ were commandeered by anti-regime elements, like Korean nationalists and revolutionaries.

This article uses one Korean word, “回車 (회차)”, which means “a train reversing direction at the end of its route and heading back in the opposite direction”. The corresponding Japanese word would be 折り返し列車. In fact, the word 回車 does not appear in any online Japanese dictionary, not even in the Weblio dictionary which usually includes words used during this period. Did the variety of Japanese spoken in Korea at the time include this word as a special loanword, or did a Korean writer accidentally or intentionally slip it into this article? In the two years of reading Keijo Nippo, this is arguably the first word I have ever encountered in the pages of the newspaper where I had to consult a Korean dictionary to confirm its definition.

I marked and labeled the train stations mentioned in this article along with some additional landmarks in the following illustrated 1929 map, which can be found at this history website. This map is a panoramic view of Seoul (then called Keijō in Japanese) as viewed in the northeast direction.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 3, 1945

Trains, Run Smoothly! 

President Hozumi Discusses Alleviating Congestion 

Struggling with Repairs

Just when you think a train has finally arrived, you are caught in a crush of people, a scene of chaos and agony—it is truly a transportation hell. The issue of transportation is a source of distress for the people of Seoul. Is there any measure that can alleviate the congestion? This question, along with another concern, was brought to the headquarters of the Seoul Electric Railway Company, leading to a conversation with President Hozumi about running the trains.

The Wish to Eliminate Faulty Cars

Q: What is the fundamental cause of the transportation congestion?
A: In the past, we prided ourselves on operating 95% of all vehicles. Now, however, we cannot keep up with repairs. We lack enough cars, and we cannot procure motors. We are forcing trains to run in tandem (a larger car pulling a smaller one), but this strain is causing even more breakdowns. The rate of absenteeism among crew members is also increasing.

Q: While the material shortages are understandable, could not congestion be alleviated somewhat by having technical school students help out with repairs and by reinforcing labor management?
A: Well, is that something only the electric company can do? Recently, due to the rain, the number of faulty cars has increased. Of course, repairs are essential, and we must also consider the job security of the crew members. Support from relevant government agencies for food supplies and materials is necessary, and raising public awareness of transportation etiquette is also part of the solution.

Q: What about reducing unnecessary passengers?
A: Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in people going out to buy food. They bring large loads, which contributes to the congestion. But then, what qualifies as a truly necessary passenger? People going out to buy food are doing so to survive, so you cannot exactly say their trips are unnecessary. We need to be more thoughtful about car assignments.

Q: It seems accidents have been on the rise as well.
A: In general, people are paying less attention. This applies to the crew as well. I am deeply concerned about this. But when I look at the current situation, it seems like a competition between inconsiderate people. Seoul Electric runs the trains, but there are other institutions responsible for public transportation training and etiquette. I think it is necessary to retrain the drivers.

Q: Does Seoul Electric have any decisive measures to alleviate congestion?
A: Listen, when there is little food, people fight. The same applies to transportation—if we had enough cars, there would be no problem. For that, we need to gather more hands for repairs. If we can do that, restoring the system to its former state is not impossible.

Dull Train Operations

Chief Conductor Maehara brainstorms solutions

In terms of life in the city center, both moral integrity and clarity are swayed when the charm of smooth train operations is significantly disturbed. We accompanied a senior official from the Seoul Electric Railway Company as he took command on the front lines, observing the real situation on the ground.

“Don’t push, you will get crushed! What are you saying? Don’t dawdle!”

At the peak of rush hour, around 5 PM, near the entrance of Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), a middle-aged, distinguished conductor was hard at work directing passengers, urging, “Please move in an orderly manner, there is still room, so please move inside.” This dedicated conductor is none other than Mr. Maehara, a senior executive of Seoul Electric. At the request of the reporter, he kindly agreed to discuss the congestion issue on the spot.

“How can we squeeze in like this? People are not cargo!” a loud voice of anger came from the crowd, and Maehara, with a wry smile, slightly lowered his head.

Reporter: “Do you often ride the trains yourself?”
Maehara: “Of course, I am on the trains practically every third day.”

After some light banter, the reporter and Maehara continued their conversation on the crowded train.

Reporter: “Is there no way to alleviate this congestion? Recently, I heard about a passenger who broke two ribs and had to be hospitalized.”
Maehara: “It is embarrassing for the company that we are unable to adequately serve the needs of wartime transportation. Above all, we simply do not have enough trains. Compared to the end of last year, we have reduced the number of cars by an additional 30%. On top of that, 25% of the cars that leave the depot each day return due to breakdowns.”

Reporter: “Is there no way to strengthen your repair capabilities?”
Maehara: “We lack enough workers.”

Reporter: “You cannot just leave it at that, can you?”
Maehara: “Of course, the trains are just as important as weapons, and we are striving to train and recruit workers. We are waiting for the implementation of new regulations that will stabilize the conditions for our employees, but I regret that the authorities are slow in taking action.”

Reporter: “Given the extreme reduction in the number of trains, isn’t it vital for the company to implement bold new ideas for introducing new train management technologies?”
Maehara: “We are considering it, but it is difficult.”

At Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), many passengers got off, and a good number of waiting passengers were able to board. Maehara was closely examining intersection technologies.

Reporter: “For example, cars converge on this line from both the Namdaemun and Seodaemun platforms, so if people walk to this point, it should be easier to board. If the two platforms at the Kōgane Station entrance were consolidated on the Kōgane line side, the train utilization rate would increase significantly, don’t you think?”
Maehara: “We would not know for sure without precise calculations. It is a complex problem involving advanced mathematical ‘combinations.’ Moreover, the stop-and-go signals are controlled by entirely separate entities, which complicates matters.”

Reporter: “Have you tried calculating it precisely?”
Maehara: “We have not. But breaking the usual norms of train operations may indeed be essential.”

We disembarked at Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). There we saw a line of ten “tandem trains” (a larger car pulling a smaller one). Maehara, embarrassed, remarked, “Well, here comes another tandem.” When we asked the cause at the front of the line, we learned it was a motor failure.

Maehara: “It is generally the same things: motor failures, brake issues, ball bearings, or circuit breakers causing what we call ‘clumped operations’—and this greatly inconveniences passengers. Many of the faults cannot be repaired on-site.”

Reporter: “How many ‘clumps’ occur each day?”
Maehara: “I do not know. We do not receive reports on each one.”

Reporter: “Is there no enthusiasm for gathering data on such issues?”
Maehara: “Handling clumps while trains are in operation is a longstanding problem that the railway society has been studying, but with breakdowns happening so frequently, we must indeed put more effort into it. We would like to draw on the wisdom of scientists in the city. Seoul Electric is also studying this issue, but there are already more than ten different causes of clumping alone.”

As an experiment, we tried recording the [westbound] passing trains headed for Kōgane Station and the [eastbound] passing trains bound for 6-chōme (present-day Dongdaemun History and Culture Park Station). From 6:51 PM, we observed the following departures:

• 6:51 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:00 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:16 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:17 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:20 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:25 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station

It was not until 30 minutes later that a Wangsimni-bound train finally arrived. It was a small train, with passengers spilling out from both entrances. The train slowly came to a stop, packed so dangerously that it was unbearable to watch. Following that, two Wangsimni-bound trains arrived, and ironically, the third one was nearly empty. For a line that transports 90,000 commuters a day, the operation of the Wangsimni line was nothing short of terribly inefficient, a ‘skewer dumpling’ style of operation.

Reporter: “What about adjusting train destinations at key points to better manage flow?”
Maehara: “Passengers are uncooperative, and changing the destination in the middle of a route only causes more confusion.”

Reporter: “If leaving the task of managing the confusion to lower-level employees results in further disorder, then it would be better to assign staff at key points. The real issue is breaking away from outdated concepts of train operation. It seems we are too bound by conventional practices.”

At the train station in Donam-dong there was still a massive crowd of about 400 people waiting. At its peak, the crowd can reach 600. At Jongno 4-Chōme (present-day Jongno 4-ga), another large crowd was waiting. The route, which carries 80,000 daily commuters with only eight cars, was managed relatively smoothly, but the Kōgane Line saw passenger surges that drastically reduced operational efficiency. While passenger management in ‘skewer dumpling trains’ is going relatively well, there are still issues such as trains pretending to be broken (‘moving broken cars’), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers (‘jump trains’), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops (‘slipping trains’), and trains running without clear destinations (‘black trains’). Clearly, there are still significant gaps in the education of the train operators.

Maehara: “There is clearly a lack of adequate training for the crew, but it seems we are still feeling the aftereffects of having overemphasized the improvement of train turnaround rates for a period. We are determined to make every effort to address this.”

While there are certainly ongoing challenges and ‘impossible’ situations, Maehara’s dedication to his work is evident. He is known for late-night sessions with experts, formulating plans to improve operations. The people of Seoul have great expectations for him as the new senior executive at Seoul Electric.
[Photo: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月3日
上手に電車よ走れ
穂積社長と混雑緩和問答
修理困難に閉口

やっと電車が来たかと思うと押し合いへし合い阿鼻叫喚、正しく交通地獄だ。戦う京城府民の『足』の問題は悩みの種である。輸送緩和へなんとか施策はないものか。府民の此の苦情を京電本社へ持ち込み打開究明の二題＝先ず穂積社長の肚を叩いて電車を走らそうとする問答

一掃したい故障車
問：輸送が混雑する根本原因は何か？
答：もとは全車輌の九十五パーセントを動かしていたのが京電の自慢だったが、今は修繕が行き届かない。車輌も足らないモーターも手に入らない、そこで無理に親子電車を引張るのだが無理をするから更に故障が増えるという始末だ。乗務員の欠勤率も揚っている。
問：資材難は仕方ないとしても技術者現役生徒の勤労奉仕も車輌修繕を手伝わしたり労務管理を徹底すれば或る程度混雑は緩和されないか？
答：夫は君、電気会社だけすることかね。最近雨の為に故障車は増えているし修理の手は勿論緊要だし乗務員の身分的安定も考慮せねばならぬ。従業員の食糧、資材斡旋等関係官庁の助力が必要で府民の交通道徳の昂揚も緩和策だ。
問：無駄な人を運ばないようにすればどうか？
答：最近買出し部隊がめっきり増えてきて大きな荷物を持ち込み混雑の一因となっているが、然らばほんとうに用がある人とは何か。買出しも食う為にはどうしてもやらなければならぬ状態だから其の人にとっては無用だとは言えぬではないか。配車ももっと考慮すべきだと思う。
問：事故が増えてきた様だが？
答：一般に注意力が減ってきている。乗務員もそうだ。此の点恐縮している。然し近頃の状態を見ているとまるで野暮人と野暮人の競合だよ。京電は電車を動かすが乗客の交通道徳とか訓練は他にやるべき機関があるではないか。運転手の再教育は必要だと思う。
問：何とか輸送緩和へ京電の決戦施策はないか？
答：いいかね君、食物も少ないと喧嘩をする。輸送も車輌さえあれば問題ない。其の為には修繕の『手』を搔き集めたい。そうすれば元通り復活することは不可能ではない。

芸の無い配車ぶり
紳士車掌前原さん思案投げ首
都心生活に道徳心も明朗性も先ず電車運営の妙味が大きく揺らぐ。京城電車幹部の陣頭指揮に同行。現場の実体を衝く。
『押すな潰れるぞ何言うか、ぼやぼやするな！』
午後五時頃混雑絶頂の黄金町入口で客をさばき乍ら『御順に中へ願います、まだ乗れますから中へ詰めて下さい』懸命に名車掌ぶりを発揮しているのが中年の紳士車掌。これが京電前原常務だ。記者が乞うて混雑電車打開の現場問答に出て貰った姿だ。
『そんなに詰められるかい、人間は荷物じゃないぞ』と怒声が飛んで来て常務の縮んだ首が苦笑する。
『常務も電車てうものに乗りますか』
『冗談ではない。三日にあげず乗っている』
以下馬鹿囃子で締め上げる様にして乗った記者との車中問答。
『この混雑は何とかならんか。此の前も肋骨二本を折って入院した客もある』
『会社の不勉強で決戦輸送に充分の奉仕が出来ず申し訳ない。何と言っても電車が足らない。昨年末の混雑時に較べて現在は更に三割減車している。それに加えて毎日一日出庫した車が故障で入庫するが其の数は二割五分に達している』
『修理能力の強化は出来ぬか』
『工員不足だ』
『工員不足だ、と放っては擱けまい』
『勿論電車も兵器だの信念で工員教育と、工員募集に努力している。近く充足会社としての工員待遇の規定が適用されれば工員も落ちつくと思うが当局の措置も遅い憾みがある』
『それにしても極端に減車した今日、電車の操車技術にも思い切った新構想を行うのは会社として第一の要点ではないか』
『考えてはいるが困難だ』
永楽町では乗客が大分下車して、待っていた客のかなりが乗車出来た。交叉点技術を突っ込んでいる。
『例えば此の線には南大門方面からと西大門方面からの車が二重に集まるので此処迄歩けば幾何か楽に乗れる。もし黄金町入口の二つの乗場を黄金町線側に統合したら車の利用率はぐっと上がると思うが』
『夫は精密に計算してみないと優劣は解らない。高等数学の『組合』の問題だ。それにゴーストップの信号が全然別個の管轄だから厄介だ』
『精密に計算してみたことがあるか』
『それはない。然し電車は交叉点前で止まるのが定石だ。定石を打破してみるのが肝要ではないか』
黄金町四丁目で降りてみる。丁度来合わせた十輌も重なった「親子電車」に『いや端へ向の親子が来ましたね』と常務卿が照れた形だ。先頭の車に原因を訊くとモーターの故障だ。
『大体時々廻ってみて解るのはモーターの故障、制動器、ボール、遮断器と色々の故障の為に大小の団子運転を作っているが之が乗客に大変な迷惑をお掛けしている。現場で修理出来ぬものも多い』
『一日にどれ程団子を作っているか』
『それは解らない。一々報告がない』
『それ位の統計を作るだけの研究熱意はないのか』
『．．．団子の「運行中処理は」電車学会の宿題になっているが、こう故障が頻発しては大いに研究せねばならない。街の科学者の知恵も借りたい所だ。京電でも研究中だが、団子の原因と種類だけでも十数程ある』
試みに二人で黄金町から六丁目方面行きの通過車輌を記録してみる。六時五十一分黄金町行、七時黄金町行、七時十六分続いて黄金町行、七時十七分同、七時二十分同、七時二十五分同、始めてから三十分後にやっと往十里行が来る。しかも小型の両入口にはみ出した客が鈴成りのまま徐行して止まる。危なくてみておれない。続いて往十里行が二台、三台目は皮肉にも空いている。日に九万人の通勤者を運ぶ往十里線の操車はこれでは拙劣此上もない『串団子』運転だ。
『時々要地点で行先変更をやり調節してはどうか』
『乗客が無理解で出来ないものもかえって混乱して収拾がつかぬ』
『混乱を整理するための処置を下級従業員に委せて、混乱するのなら要所に係を配置してやればよいだろう。問題は古い操車通念を打破することだ。どうも操車上の「定石」に囚れているように思う』
敦岩町の停留所は相変わらず長蛇の列でざっと四百名が押しかけている。多い時は六百を超えている。鐘路四丁目でもまた大物長蛇が待っているが、一日八万の通勤者を僅か八輌の車が運んでいる。それでも比較的順調な一本運転に対して黄金町線の客が波状的に殺到するから運用率は全然低下している。ここの乗客整理はうまく行っていた『串団子電車』もさることながら故障を偽った「動く故障車」まだ空いているのに客を振り切って走る「跳び出し電車」停車点の客を無視して行き過ぎる「滑り込み電車」行き先も前後も解らず走る「闇電車」等々まだまだ運転手教育に不充分の處がある。
『全く乗務員教育の足らん處だが一時回車率向上を強調した余波がまだあるようだ。極力努力したいと思っている』
問題は勿論困難と『不可能』の続出かも知らぬが、技術畑に鍛えたという仕事への熱と追及力が充分みられ、陣頭指揮の一方、夜おそく迄専門家と首引で構想を錬ると言う新常務前原鷹氏の仕事ぶりは府民が大いに期待する處だ。

【写真＝現場で整理員指導中の前原京電常務】

The original source can be checked out at the National Library of Korea, which I visited in September 2023 to take the following photos of the newspaper copies: